Adamou ALOU GUIMBA

The Issue of Beggary in Africa: the case study of Aminta Sow Fall’s The Beggars’ Strike

Résumé

Ces dernières années, le problème de la mendicité a considérablement attiré l’attention des érudits. Comme connu par tous, la mendicité est devenue le problème le plus problématique en Afrique. En effet, ce travail est provoqué par l’affirmation selon laquelle la mendicité est un phénomène Islamique. C’est contre cette accusation que cette présente étude examinera le contexte historique de la mendicité en Afrique de l’ouest lié à l’Islam tout en analysant comment Aminta Sow Fall a dénoncé le problème de la mendicité dans The Beggars’ Strike. Ainsi, ce travail fera la différence entre le Talibés et les professionnels de la mendicité. Il démontrera que l’Islam encourage la sueur du front, l’estime de soi et la résilience. Finalement, ce travail conclura que l’Islam ne supporte ni ne pardonne la mendicité professionnelle.

Abstract

In the recent years, the problem of beggary in Africa has considerably attracted scholars’ attention. The business of begging as known by all, has become one of the most problematical social issue in Africa. In fact, this work is provoked by the widespread belief hold by the general populace that beggary is an Islam phenomenon. It is against this background that, the present study will examine the historical source of beggary in West Africa links to Islam by analyzing how Aminta Sow Fall’s has fustigated the issue of beggary in her The Beggars’ Strike. Though, this work will point out that Almajirai are different from professional beggars. It will demonstrate that Islam encourage hard working and self-esteem and resilience. Finally, it will conclude that Islam neither supports nor condones professional beggary.

Table des matières

pp. 27-44

01/06/2025

Introduction

1Societies all over the world have challenges depending on the circumstances surrounding their existences, and one of such challenges is the menace of alms-begging. It is a global phenomenon and not found in a specific society alone, but rather it is found everywhere, in both developed and developing countries. In these last decades, this issue of beggary becomes a phenomenon in West Africa embedded with multiples consequences. In West Africa for instance, the prevalence of beggary is more considerable in countries where the percentage of Muslims is important such as Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal. This problem is assumed with religious, political and socioeconomic dimensions in The Beggars’ Strike by Aminata Sow Fall. The Beggars’ Strike is according to Ojedoja Sanjo (December 2019) a sociological work which in the view of W. F. Thrall and A. Hibbard (1960), ‘’centers its principal attention on the nature, function, and effect of the society in which the characters live and on the social forces playing on them, vis-à-vis the society in which they live.’’ By definition, beggary is the fact of stimulating people’s pity by means of physical impairment, economic sore or social reasons to ask for help. The Almajiri beggars and the professional beggars constitute the two main classes of beggars. The professional beggary as a deviation to the social norms, is one of the most endemic multifaceted social problems with great magnitude and which is less understood in all its dimensions (Dr V. Malarvizhi & Dr K.T. Geetha, May 2016). In this work, I would like to trace the contrast between the two types of beggary and to prove that Islam is against the professional beggary. In order to better attack this work, the historical theory, which is said to be the most valuable to understand the past, is used to understand the origin of beggary in West Africa. Guided by the new criticism theory which is said, ‘’ to encourage a style of criticism that focuses only on what can be seen on the pages of the text (study.com)’’, this current literary dissertation focuses on three main points of this issue of beggary. In fact, the first point concerns the historical background of beggary in the West Africa, the second point considers the qualification of beggars in the Beggars’ Strike, and the third one is relative to the political reasons of cleaning capitals from these beggars

Historical of Traditional Quranic School

The Traditional Qur’anic School

2Africa was the first continent into which Islam spread from the Middle East, during the 7^th century CE. Islam has been in Africa for so long, since its emergence on the Arabian Peninsula, that some scholars have argued that it is a traditional Africa religion. Currently, almost one-third of the world’s Muslim population resides in Africa (en.m.wikipedia.org). In Africa, Islam has both local and global dimensions. On the local level, experts assert that Muslims operate with considerable autonomy and do not have an international organization that regulates their religious practices (D. E. Thomas, 2015). Its fact accounts for the differences and varieties in Islamic practices throughout the African continent. On the global level, Muslims in Africa are also part of the Ummah (Islamic community worldwide) and follow global issues and current events that affect the Muslim world with keen interest (en.m.wikipedia.org). Islam as traditional Africa religion in fact, cannot last without its knowledge and practice transmission through generations. Though, this transmission is assured by the traditional Qur’anic School, and its students constitute the first class of beggars called almajirai in Hausa.

3Quranic schools are thus, places where Muslims learn their religion and normally found out of the mosque, private houses or premises set for that purpose. Historically, quranic schools are established by Arabs to offer religious instructions to Muslim children and promote the Islamic religious culture in general. Though, the Islamic education is provided through Quranic schools for individuals to master the basic tenets of Islam and it is done by sheer memorization and mastering the Arabic script (Mattson, 2008). According to Ozigi et al (1995) one of the goals of Quranic Schools or Islamic education is to spread Islamic religion and to find frontiers of Islam. Islamic education is also aimed at providing a firm foundation of Islamic religious education by developing the spiritual well-being of its students through the Islamic teachings.

4Though, Mallams and their pupils also freely provide their community with Islamic Education, in addition to the development of Ajami (i.e. reading and writing in Arabic alphabets). Prof Fafunwa mentions that, ‘’there were 6000 Almajiri schools in Northern Nigeria through which writing came to the North first before any other region.’’ Based on this system which is founded upon the teachings of Qur’an and Hadith, the then Northern Nigeria was largely educated with a complete way of life, governance, customs, traditional craft, trade and even the mode of dressing. The chronicles of the travelers said that, ‘’the northern part of the territory was well organized, people were in walled cities, were literate and devout, the southern part was characterized by wars, savagery, superstitious butchery akin to Conrad’s observations in his Heart of Darkness (naijainfoman, June 7, 2012 ).

5Therefore, the Qur’anic schools have paved way to literacy, social organization, business development, civilization, and sustainable peace building in Africa. The modern way of the Qur’anic school called ‘medersa’ however, cannot fulfill the traditional role due its control by the internal and external politics.

The System of Almajiranci in the West Africa

6In the past and before the arrival of the Colonizers in the 15^th century as by mentions Jamila Osman (2020), Africa has a well social establishment with high educational systems, spiritual, cultural and moral values (U. Anzar, 2003). This view is shared by Lord Macaulay during his addressed to the British Parliament on 2nd Feb 1835: ''I have travelled across the length and the breadth of Africa and I have not seen one person who is a beggar, who is a thief...''. However, this wealth is a threat for white-men that deserves to be demolished. In order to conquer and gain dominance over Africans, white-men set a plan to destroy Africans heritage by creating cultural and language hegemony. In the same speech, Lord Macaulay declares that : ''such wealth I have seen in this country, such high moral values, people of such caliber, that I do not think we would ever conquer this country, unless we break the very backbone of this nation, which is her spiritual and cultural heritage and therefore, I propose that we replace her old and ancient education system, her culture, for if the Africans think that all that is foreign and English (French in case of French colonies) is good and greater than their own, they will lose their self-esteem, their native culture and they will become what we want them to become, a truly dominated nation'' (Lord Macaulay,1835). That makes believe that beggary in Africa is one a fruit of Africa destabilization.

7Almajiranci refers to a system of Islamic education practiced in northern Nigeria, the male gender seeking Islam knowledge is called almajiri (also talibé), female gender is almajira, and the plural is almajirai (The plights of Almajirai, 2022). In fact, this hausanized word Almajiri is derived from the Arabic word "al-Muhājir (المُهَاجِر)," which refers to a person who migrates from his home in search of Islamic knowledge (Almajiris over coronavirus, 2021). Almajirai as described in the Beggars’ Strike by S. F. Aminata are, ‘’children who, a few minutes before, were performing a Koranic symphony around Serigne Birama, drop their tablets at the foot of the majestic baobab tree, which is the umbilicus of the whole village (62). In fact, almajirai are children, usually from poor rural backgrounds, who leave their hometowns to study Islamic learning with malammai, teachers of the Quran (A. Iro & E. S. James, 2013). These almajirai practice alms begging, or almajiranchi, out of necessity to eat (H. Hannah, 2014). This is also what is presumed with the talibés of Birama after dropping their tablets. However, almajiranchi is not originally part of the almajirai system as demonstrates in the illustration below,

Almajiris, during our time about 60 years ago did not beg and were held in high esteem in northern Nigeria, houses in the neighborhood bring food in calabash every day, we help our teacher on the farm, gather firewood from the bush which we use to read at night, assist his wife with domestic chores for food in return and no pupil is taxed as the teacher gets his reward from Allah (naijainfoman, June 7, 2012 ).

8In the same line, prior to the British arrival in Nigeria, almajiri children stay at home with their parents and attends tsangayu to learn about the Quran (H. Hannah, 2014). In fact, all the schools available then are in close proximity with the immediate environment of the students. Though, inspectors are introduced to go to the schools and report the affairs of the school to the emir of the province (H. Hannah). The schools are funded by the state treasury, the community, parents, zakah controlled by local emirs, sadaqqah and sometimes the farm output of the students (G. T. Imoudu & E. O. Success, January 2017). In addition, in the precolonial era, almajirai do not beg because there is sufficient funding to feed and clothe them. This prove that Islam is a matter of dignity and hard-working. However, with the colonization of Nigeria by the British in 1904, many changes have occurred in the almajiri system (H. Hannah).

The Decline of the Almajiri System in the West Africa

9During the colonial era, the British deposed emirs and defunded the almajiri system (Welle, www.dw.com). With no support from the community, emirs and government, the system collapsed (Islam in Nigeria, 26-03-2020). The British does, however, establish large urban centers, so many malammai migrate from rural areas to the cities as they are the only capable of fulfilling the task and also as a religion obligation. Though, many northern cities, such as Kano, become important centers of Islamic learning. And with lack of other alternative, parents start sending their children to the cities to study Islam, and the relationship between the almajiri (student) and the malammai (teachers) became more salient (H. Hannah, 2014).

10Although, teachers and students stand with no financial support; they turn to alms begging and menial jobs for survival (Muhammed, 05-06-2021). To fulfill the continuity of the Islamic science transmission, the responsibility of the almajiri is then taken over by the local scholars who deemed it a moral and religious duty to educate these pupils for the sake of Allah. Nonetheless, with the scarcity of funds and overwhelming number of pupils to cater for, the system continues to flourish with the support of the immediate community and begging is still not a norm instead. They resort to odd menial jobs to make ends meet.

11However, with the increasing level of poverty in the country, the care of the almajiri becomes overwhelmingly burdensome for the mallammai who are left with no choice but to send these little boys out to beg from the good will of the society. To make ends meet, some of these mallammai begin to impose on the almajiri what is called “kudin sati”, a form of weekly fees for the lessons he derives. In this imposed context, almajirai are reassured that to beg is better than to steal, and eventually this practice becomes the norm (Muhammed, 05-06-2021). To justify its combination to the system, beggary is now said to prepare the almajirai for the hardships of life, make them strong and humble, and keep them devoted to studying the Quran (H. Hannah, 2014).

12At the other angle, the bearing disregard of the colonizers for the almajiri system in preference for western education ignites animosity and antagonism from the Mallammai, the pupils and the society at large. The case scenario is worsen by the belief that the western education (Boko) is of Christian-European origin and therefore anti-Islamic. It breeds the fear that a child with western belief will eventually lose his Islamic identity and embrace vices that negates the values and principles of Islam such as alcoholism, fornication, semi naked dressing, partying, abandoning the prayer, fasting, zakat, etc. This predicament is often reflected in the grievances vent out at those attending the western schools as echoed in a popular Almajiri song “Dan makaranta bokoko, ba karatu, ba sallah, sai yawan zagin mallam” meaning “oh students of western education, you do not learn the Quran and you do not pray, except to be mocking the mallam (naijainfoman, June 7, 2012 ).’’

13Today, the practice of alms begging is widely denounced, throughout of numerous channels. Colloquially, the term almajiri has expanded to refer to any young person who begs on the streets and does not attend secular school (O. Akali, 2015). In fact, they are, beggars (children, adults, old people, men and women, girls and boys) that are not Quranic students and that do not even care about Islam individually and Islam evolution in its whole that constitute the second and the largest branch of beggars. They beg not out of necessity, and associated themselves with religion to save money. They take beggary as a work and claim it to be their profession. This statement is corroborated by the reaction of the beggars in The Beggars’ Strike who answer to one of their colleagues, Nguirane, who complains about her sort by saying, ‘’but you have got a trade! You are a beggar (62)!’’.

14Fall confirms that, these beggars use different reasons such as blindness, poverty, amputee, speech talent … to justify their begging income (The Beggars’ Strike, 62-95). Additionally, they roam about dirty, tattered, bare feet, pale with flies pecking on their cracked lips and dry faces, which is filled with rashes or ringworm to attract people sensibilities. Even though, it is clear that beggary takes away all iota of dignity as confirming to the words of prophet (S.A.W) who said “begging is a distortion that disfigures a person’s face (naijainfoman, June 7, 2012 ). This second class or professional beggars are obstacle to the development and have not place in Islam contrarily to the almajirai. Therefore, they are not to be confounded elsewhere, one could accused Islam of condoning beggary by their used to ‘’Allah’’.

Denunciation of the System of Beggary

15Due to its wide and rapid growing and spreading, multiple and various way of denunciation such as Medias, social network, conferences, novels, dissertations ... have emerged in an effort to slow down its propagation and solve this phenomenon. The problem of beggary is a proliferating disease, particularly in West Africa. In fact, these beggars are men, women, boys and girls, talibés and non-talibés, disabilities (lepers, cripples…) and non-disabilities of various ages that block people’s passage in the different Africa capitals like Niamey. Though, in the newspaper for instance as relates by S. F. Aminata in The Beggars’ Strike, ‘’this morning there has been another article about it in the newspaper: about how the streets are congested with these beggars, these talibés, these lepers and cripples, all these derelicts.’’ This phenomenon has shaped another category of social classes in our societies.

16To corroborate, Mother Teresa, in 20 quotes to Inspire Change, to say, “The greatest disease in the West today is not tuberculosis or leprosy; it is being unwanted, unloved, and uncared for.” S. F. Aminta, in her fustigation, qualifies these beggars or battu bearers with words of second rank people. As illustrate, apart her above using of derelict, she refers to them as parodies of human beings, dregs of society, hurdle, bombardment, ubiquitous, conglomeration of humanity, folk who poison the air with their smell etc. In other words, S. F. Aminta seeks to expose hypocrisy and exploration in her society (Q. Cecilia et al., 2017). Because, beggary is not only a sign of poverty, but combines with blindness of heart which the Holly Qur’an qualifies of being the worst form of blindness. In addition, according to Nelson Mandela in 20 quotes to Inspire Change, “Poverty is not an accident. Like slavery and apartheid, it is man-made and can be removed by the actions of human beings.” Moreover, in the view of Keba Dabo, one character in Beggars’ Strike :

Poverty has never compelled people to beg; poverty has never excluded self-respect, human dignity! Sagar...it is not you I’m angry with, but those people who do a real wrong to humanity, and who, if you look carefully, harm the genuinely poor, that is the ones who have nothing but who manage to keep up an appearance of respectability and dignity... (44-45).

17To emphasize, these type of people are also well described in the Holy Qur’an. They are the real poor and those who deserve assistance as reveals in the holy Qur’an in a verse relating to charity, ‘’ It is for the poor; those who are restrained in the way of Allah, and unable to travel in the land. The unaware would think them rich, due to their dignity. You will recognize them by their features. They do not ask from people insistently (Qur’an, 2:273).’’

18Though, through her using of political characters who are the decision makers, S. F. Aminta, unveils the obstacles that the panhandlers create with their persistence at the traffic light, at the hospital, to get to work in one’s own office, at the bank, at the markets and at the mosque and principally on Fridays, the streets are known by everyone to be clogged up with beggars as in the passage below :

These people _parodies of human beings rather_ these dregs of society who beset you everywhere and attack you without provocation at all times. You hope that the traffic LIGHTS WILL NEVER turn red as you approach an intersection in your car! And once you’ve overcome the obstacle of the traffic lights, you have to get past another hurdle to reach the hospital, force your way through a bombardment to get to work in your own office, struggle to emerge from the bank, make a thousand detours to avoid them at the markets, and finally pay a ransom to enter the House of God! Oh! (P1).

19In the same line of thinking, Aminta, S. F. uses Keba Dabo, an assistant to Mour Ndiaye, the Director of the Department of Public Health and Hygiene who she depicts as a skeptic character on the issue of beggary, to attract the sensibility of her reader in order to convince them about the ongoing hardship situation creates by beggars in our capitals. The example with Keba Dabo is that, he once finds himself as said S. F. Aminta, in a completely inadmissible situation. As one Friday, which is a special day for beggars, he has the misfortune to be in a Lebanese merchant’s shop. Just as a young man is coming out of the shop, a beggar is feeling his way in and hits him with his stick. When the young man swears at the beggar; the latter comes back at him with some choice obscenities, to everyone’s stupefaction, ‘‘how dare you use such language to me?’ Oh! Just because we are beggars, people think we’re dogs! We’re beginning to get fed up with the way we’re treated! (P1).’’ By the present evidence, Aminta, S. F. indicates the reasons that must push the population to rise against the beggars and the government to get rid of them.

20In addition, another incentive message is Keba Dabo’s unrealistic feeling whenever by bad luck a beggar approaches him with his filthy hands when by imprudence he downs his car’s windows at a stop and almost when reminds that he has resolved himself to give not a penny to a beggar. In fact, this resolution of Keba Dabo is only due to the pain he feels when he sees a person however poor he is, reducing himself, unveiling his dignity robe by sponging on others in a disgraceful and shameless manner as in the quotation below :

keba didn't tell Mour Ndiaye his feelings every time a beggar held out his hand to him. he didn't tell him how he nearly chocked when filthy hands were poked right into his car, as soon as he was imprudent enough to lower the windows, nor the remorse he felt when he conformed to the principle he had aid down never to give alms to beggars, a principe that was not inspired by meanness churlishness, but simply because he was chocked to see human beings however poor they might be diminishing their own dignity by sponging on others in such disgraceful, shameless fashion (P2).

21However, Keba Dabo forgot that hunger and poverty compelled some of people to beg, and remind those who were better off that paupers too existed (P2). Likely, the general idea of beggars is that Allah has created both the rich and poor and asked the rich to take care of the poor. So, by begging they are just claiming their right that the rich refuse to give them. Unfortunately, as the period coincide with the modernity, these men, these parodies of human beings, as persistent as they are ubiquitous! The capital is crying out to be cleared of them (P1).

The officials Struggle against the System of Beggars

22The reasons of war deliverance against beggars in The Beggars’ Strike are at the same time political, economic, security and environmental. This battle is declared through Keba Dabo, the assistant to the Director of the Department of Public Health and Hygiene. In fact, Keba apart from his aversion against beggars, is attributed the power against them because one of his job consists to free the streets from the insanity of beggars. Though, as a political will, the instructions come from his director, Mour Ndiaye, who is absolutely categorical as he himself has received the memorandum from the Minister reiterating the order for the public highways to be cleaned up from these filthy (P 1-2).

23Although, the addressed reasons for this incursion by Mour is that, ‘’the situation is getting more and more worrying because beggars are really making life a bit difficult.’’ In addition, Mour explains to Birama (his Mallam) that as political and policy makers, they are the ones who are in charge of the destiny of this country. Hence, for the interest of all they must oppose anything which harms their economic and tourist development. Mour explaines that nowadays, people who live a long way away, in Europe and United Nations of America, white people especially, are beginning to take interest in the beauty of our country, and these people are called tourists. In fact, in the old days these white people came to rob and exploit us; now they visit our country for a rest and in search of happiness. Thus why we built hotels and holiday villages and casino to welcome them. These tourists spend huge sums of money to come here, there are even special societies over in Europe who organize these journeys. And when these tourists visit the City, they are accosted by the beggars and we run the risk of their never coming back here or putting out unfavorable propaganda to discourage others who might like to come (17-18).

24In fact, it couldn’t be understandable by the authorities how these beggars manage to get back on the streets when raids are organized every week and sometimes they're dropped more than a hundred miles away, but the next day they're back at their strategic points. However, this time, the decision is different. For Keba, it is question of finding a definitive way of getting rid of these people. To do so, Mour orders his staff to track beggars down wherever they lurk. And if necessary to take severe measures, they will take severe measures (P14). Because, in term of competiveness as according to Keba, their department's reputation is at stake.

25Though, the presence of battu bearers physically is harmful to the prestige of the country. They are running sore which should be kept hidden, at any rate in the capital. As consequence Keba continues, ‘’this year the number of tourists has fallen considerably, in comparison with the last year's figures, and it's almost certain that these beggars are to some extent responsible. We really can't let them invade our cities and form a threat to public hygiene and the national economy (P2-3).’’

Conclusion

26Globally, there are two principal types of beggars, the almajirai (traditional Qur’anic students) and the non- almajirai or professional beggars. Before the colonialism, beggary does not exist in Africa due its well social organization and absence of individualism. The traditional Qur’anic students before the period of colonization are well supported by the local governments of their countries. Though, the almajiri system from which is derived the professional beggary is a political will of the colonizers which aims to destabilize the harmony and social organization of Africa societies. The colons have replaced traditional Qur’anic schools to the secular ones in conformity to their aims and objective which prevail despite the harsh protagonism of Muslims who consider boko of Christian origin. However, despite the cutting of the financial support, and the later economic downfall, Mallams find the transmission of their knowledge to the next generation an obligation. It is at that right situation that the almajirai by referring to the Hijira of the Prophet Mohamed (SWA), depend on the immediate environment people. Contrary to the professional beggars, the almajiri are for the continuity of Islam. They beg just to carry out their studies whereas the professional ones beg to build their lives with this unlawful earn according to Islam. This professional beggary has more consequence than evoke that must take into consideration for further research.

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